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rationale: Mechanoreceptors respond to mechanical force such as touch, pressure, vibration, and stretch. Merkels disks are densely distributed in the fingertips and lips. c. vestibule Gustatory cells are found in taste __________. *Saccule The general senses can be divided into somatosensation, which is commonly considered touch, but includes tactile, pressure, vibration, temperature, and pain perception. A fifth type of mechanoreceptor, Krause end bulbs, are found only in specialized regions. Krause end bulbs detect cold. These include mechanoreceptors that detect light touch, vibration, pressure, and texture; nociceptors that detect pain; and thermoreceptors that detect temperature. what is a wild type receptor? muscle systems has important sensory structures called stretch receptors, which monitor the state of the muscle and return the information to the central nervous system. Nociceptors are free (bare) nerve endings found in the skin (Figure 6.2), muscle, joints, bone and viscera. Malleus d. the lens is slow to accommodate. This allows sodium ions to flow into the cell, creating a receptor potential. The epidermis serves as a barrier to water and to invasion by pathogens. b. Lacrimal sac All of the following are . e. Detectable odors are actually combinations of a smaller number of primary odors. Receptors are the cells or structures that detect sensations. http://cnx.org/contents/185cbf87-c72e-48f5-b51e-f14f21b5eabd@10.8, Describe four important mechanoreceptors in human skin, Describe the topographical distribution of somatosensory receptors. the triangle, given the coordinates of its vertices. Vitreous humor, anterior chamber, lens, pupil, posterior chamber, vascular tunic, cornea, retina. 5 - A pressure wave in the endolymph of the cochlear duct displaces a specific region of the basilar membrane. If this graded post-synaptic potential is strong enough to reach threshold it will trigger an action potential along the axon of the sensory neuron. When strong enough to reach threshold they can directly trigger an action potential along the axon of the sensory neuron. Modality refers to the way that information is encoded into a perception. The large mechanoreceptorsPacinian corpuscles and Ruffini endingsare located in the lower layers and respond to deeper touch. 30 seconds . Optic nerve Transparent: They, too, are found primarily in the glabrous skin on the fingertips and eyelids. Optic disc Myopia what ion is responsible for depolarization of hair cells of the spiral organ? b. inferior colliculus. What do Merkel cells detect? It is not surprising, then, that humans detect cold stimuli before they detect warm stimuli. - DARK a. basilar membrane. with the x and y coordinates of the vertices, respectively. c. the photoreceptors are photobleached. Proprioceptive and kinesthetic signals come from limbs. Meissners corpuscles respond to touch and low-frequency vibration. Receptors are biological transducers that convert energy from both external and internal environments into electrical impulses. The structural classifications are either based on the anatomy of the cell that is interacting with the stimulus (free nerve endings, encapsulated endings, or specialized receptor cell), or where the cell is located relative to the stimulus (interoceptor, exteroceptor, proprioceptor). Merkels disk are slow-adapting, unencapsulated nerve endings that respond to light touch; they are present in the upper layers of skin that has hair or is glabrous. A sensation occurs when neural impulses from these receptors reach the cerebral cortex. Put the events of sound wave movement through the ear and nervous pathways in order. - Provides for eye shape - Is made of dense connective tissue Order these structures from superficial to deep. Mechanoreceptors sense stimuli due to physical deformation of their plasma membranes. Which of the following are examples of olfactory cells? The general sense that is usually referred to as touch includes chemical sensation in the form of nociception, or pain. The most obvious omission from this list is balance. -Saccule Olfaction is also known as remote __________. The extraction of relevant features from the photoplethysmography signal for estimating certain physiological parameters is a challenging task. The papillae on the tongue that do not contain any taste buds are the ________ papillae. Thus, they also contribute to proprioception and kinesthesia. d.cochlear nucleus. From the soft touch of the child to the painful punch of a boxer, all the daily activities carry . Buds Free nerve endings are usually found in the: The semicircular canals are continuous in the: The area that a receptor cell gathers information from is called the: - Semicircular canals Thirdly, the functional classification is based on how the cell transduces the stimulus into a neural signal. Pacinian corpuscles detect transient pressure and high-frequency vibration. The cells that transduce sensory stimuli into the electrochemical signals of the nervous system are classified on the basis of structural or functional aspects of the cells. This spasm is a reflex that is initiated by stretch receptors to avoid muscle tearing. 5. Legal. Other somatosensory receptors are found in the joints and muscles. What does the molecular similarity of stevia to glucose mean for the gustatory sense. Treated by convex lens. __________ are receptors that detect chemicals. 3) Lacrimal sac The wild type (WT) is the phenotype of the typical form of a species as it . If two points are felt as two separate points, each is in the receptive field of two separate sensory receptors. How is receptor density estimated in a human subject? Which of the following are correct names for the tube that connects the middle ear to the nasopharynx? Stimuli in the environment activate specialized receptors or receptor cells in the peripheral nervous system. Farsightedness disorder in which the cornea and lens system is optically too weak or the eyeball is too short. - Saccule Which of the following are true of the olfactory hairs? Any deformation in the corpuscle causes action potentials to be generated by opening pressure-sensitive sodium ion channels in the axon membrane. - LIGHT. Activated rhodopsin inhibits the production of glutamate by rods. Touch and pressure are sensed by four types of mechanoreceptors ( Figure 8-1 ). b. somatic sensory receptor. Deep pressure and vibration is transduced by lamellated (Pacinian) corpuscles, which are receptors with encapsulated endings found deep in the dermis, or subcutaneous tissue. b. (Gauge pressure is the difference between the actual pressure and atmospheric pressure.). The sensory fibers connect to the spinal cord through the dorsal root, which is attached to the dorsal root ganglion. This occurs when a stimulus is detected by a receptor which generates a graded potential in a sensory neuron. - LIGHT Ask anyone what the senses are, and they are likely to list the five major sensestaste, smell, touch, hearing, and sight. Meissner's corpuscles respond to pressure and lower frequency vibrations, and Pacinian corpuscles detect transient pressure and higher frequency vibrations. Chemoreceptors are stimulated by a change in the chemical composition of the local environment. a. the pupil size is too narrow. The pain and temperature receptors in the dermis of the skin are examples of neurons that have free nerve endings. General senses often contribute to the sense of touch, as described above, or to proprioception (body position) and kinesthesia (body movement), or to a visceral sense, which is most important to autonomic functions. The somatosensory is the system of nerve cells that responds to changes to the external or internal state of the body. - Utricle e. Tectorial membrane, Which of the following structures is deepest in the inner ear? For the study, the molecular modeling and geometry optimization of the PCBs have been performed on workspace program of CAChe Pro 5.04 . name and arguments, use TriCirc (A, B, C). c. Hyperopia Mechanoreceptors sense stimuli due to physical deformation of their plasma membranes. During hearing, the last structure(s) to vibrate is/are the Pacinian corpuscles, such as these visualized using bright field light microscopy, detect pressure (touch) and high-frequency vibration. Cis-retinal and opsin re-form rhodopsin. * saccharine, EXs associated w/ what taste sensation? Receptors are the structures (and sometimes whole cells) that detect sensations. Unconscious proprioceptive signals run from the spinal cord to the cerebellum, the brain region that coordinates muscle contraction, rather than to the thalamus, like most other sensory information. what type of receptors detect deep pressure and vibration? __________ of the eye is receded into the orbit. Using an allowable stress of 9MPa9 \mathrm{~MPa}9MPa for the concrete and 120MPa120 \mathrm{~MPa}120MPa for the steel, determine the largest allowable positive bending moment in a portion of the slab 1m1 \mathrm{~m}1m wide. This process is called sensory transduction. 2) Vascular tunic Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance, Lindsay M. Biga, Sierra Dawson, Amy Harwell, Robin Hopkins, Joel Kaufmann, Mike LeMaster, Philip Matern, Katie Morrison-Graham, Devon Quick & Jon Runyeon, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, Pain, temperature, mechanical deformation, Epidermaldermal junction, mucosal membranes, Papillary dermis, especially in the fingertips and lips, Deep dermis, subcutaneous tissue, joint capsules, Deep pressure, high-frequency vibration (around 250 Hz), Wrapped around hair follicles in the dermis, Describe different types of sensory receptors. 1. The brain can determine the static position of the head due to sensors in the *Tensor tympani muscle, Structures apart of inner, middle, or outer ear? 1. endolymph of cochlear duct Summarize Rutherfords model of the atom, and explain how he developed this model based on the results of his famous gold-foil experiment. Order the auditory ossicles from lateral to medial. Such stretch receptors can also prevent over-contraction of a muscle. What type of papillae is the largest and least numerous? The distribution of touch receptors in human skin is not consistent over the body. Deeper in the epidermis, near the base, are Ruffini endings, which are also known as bulbous corpuscles. c) Cold. e. Lateral geniculate nucleus Fill in the blanks. - It is a benign tumor The lamellar corpuscles (also known as Pacinian corpuscles) in the skin and fascia detect rapid vibrations (of about 200-300 Hz). g - Medial geniculate nucleus. - Semicircular canals Which of the following are semicircular canals? Which are examples of both somatic and visceral sensory receptors? Lies deep to dermis. Glutamate inhibits the bipolar cells that synapse with the rods. A fifth type of mechanoreceptor, Krause end bulbs, are found only in specialized regions. They are rapidly adapting mechanoreceptors that sense deep transient (but not prolonged) pressure and high-frequency vibration. - They function well in dim light. In a taste bud the basal cells replace the __________ cells. The suspensory ligaments connect the __________ to the ciliary muscles. c. incus. assuming that the spacing of the 16mm16-\mathrm{mm}16mm-diameter rods is increased to 225mm225 \mathrm{~mm}225mm on centers. Stretch receptors monitor the stretching of tendons, muscles, and the components of joints. b. Pressure, vibration, muscle stretch, and the movement of hair by an external stimulus, are all sensed by mechanoreceptors and perceived as touch or proprioception. The four major types of tactile mechanoreceptors include: Merkel's disks, Meissner's corpuscles, Ruffini endings, and Pacinian corpuscles. a. a lack of depth perception. Clouding of the lens resulting from a buildup of proteins, If a receptor's receptive field is ___________, it allows for greater specificity of localization. d. Cone - Filiform e. Lacrimal canaliculus As tears drain through the lacrimal caruncle they enter small holes called the lacrimal __________. A tactile sensory receptorcan be defined as the peripheral ending of a sensory neuron and its accessory structures, which may be part of the nerve cell or may come from epithelial or connective tissue. The Nervous System and Nervous Tissue, Chapter 13. g. Retina. Like Merkels disks, Meissners corpuscles are not as plentiful in the palms as they are in the fingertips. Meissner's corpuscles detect changes in texture (vibrations around 50 Hz) and adapt rapidly. Anatomy & Physiology by Lindsay M. Biga, Sierra Dawson, Amy Harwell, Robin Hopkins, Joel Kaufmann, Mike LeMaster, Philip Matern, Katie Morrison-Graham, Devon Quick & Jon Runyeon is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. Meissners corpuscles, (shown in Figure3) also known as tactile corpuscles, are found in the upper dermis, but they project into the epidermis. b. Acetylcholine These injuries may result from sports or recreational activities, motor vehicle crashes, falls, physical assaults, and gunshot wounds. For example, have you ever stretched your muscles before or after exercise and noticed that you can only stretch so far before your muscles spasm back to a less stretched state? detect vibration, deep touch. For humans, the only electromagnetic energy that is perceived by our eyes is visible light. 2) Photoreceptors Neurons in the olfactory bulb travel through the olfactory _________ to the brain. * acids A receptor or receptor cell is changed directly by a stimulus. a. complex in structure a. gets louder. Excerpt Our somatosensory system has three basic types of sensory receptors that detect different types of external stimuli. Sensory receptors are classified into five categories: mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, proprioceptors, pain receptors, and chemoreceptors. Three types of receptors detect touch: Meissner corpuscles, Merkel disks, and free nerve endings. Consider the following figure, where three forces are applied to a block of mass 2 kg, initially at rest. 7. ends with the round window, free nerve endings are terminal branches of. *Semicircular canals d. Astigmatism, What may be the cause of hyperopia? What is commonly referred to as touch involves more than one kind of stimulus and more than one kind of receptor. 4 - Ossicles Sensory receptors are classified into five categories: mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, proprioceptors, pain receptors, and chemoreceptors. : - Pharyngotympanic tube Large receptors respond to deep pressure and vibration j. Ruffini endings (bulbous corpuscle) i. 2. perilymph of scala vestibule Describing sensory function with the term sensation or perception is a deliberate distinction. 4. endolymph of cochlear duct The nerves that convey sensory information from the periphery to the CNS are either spinal nerves, connected to the spinal cord, or cranial nerves, connected to the brain. 6. Anterior two-thirds of the tongue - Facial nerve (CN VII) Somatosensation is considered a general sense, as opposed to the submodalities discussed in this section. How does light affect rhodopsin? Barorecptors detect pressure changes in an organ. f - Superior olivary nucleus a - Thalamus b. Pinna The average intensity of light emerging from a polarizing sheet is 0.764W/m20.764 \mathrm{W} / \mathrm{m}^{2}0.764W/m2, and the average intensity of the horizontally polarized light incident on the sheet is 0.883W/m20.883 \mathrm{W} / \mathrm{m}^{2}0.883W/m2. *Cochlea The posterior cavity contains the __________ canal, a remnant of embryonic development. Capsaicin molecules bind to a transmembrane ion channel in nociceptors that is sensitive to temperatures above 37C. Different kinds of receptors respond to different kinds Mechanoreceptors are part of the nervous system that detect changes in movement or pressure. Several distinct receptor types form the somatosensory system including thermoreceptors (heat), nociceptors (pain), and mechanoreceptors (pressure). Light touch, also known as discriminative touch, is a light pressure that allows the location of a stimulus to be pinpointed. Drag and drop the labels into the appropriate location on the figure. They are found in the bone periosteum, joint capsules, pancreas and other viscera, breast, and genitals. Order the structures of the eye fromsuperficial to deep. Gustatory cells have a __________ lifespan. 6. b. large - Supporting cells Rapidly adapting light-touch receptors Located in superficial dermis Pacinian corpuscles: Detect deep pressure and vibration Located in deep dermis Epidermis Derived from ectoderm Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium 4 or 5 main layers: Stratum basale (stratum germinativum): Deepest layer Germinating layer Did you have an idea for improving this content? How many auditory ossicles are found in each ear? These sensory receptors are known as the cutaneous receptors and they are found in the epidermis and dermis of the skin. b. What structure focuses incoming light onto the retina? Graded potentials in receptor cells are called receptor potentials. Merkels disks are found in the upper layers of skin near the base of the epidermis, both in skin that has hair and on glabrous skin; that is, the hairless skin found on the palms and fingers, the soles of the feet, and the lips of humans and other primates. This information is detected by sensory receptors in our muscles, ligaments, and joints, and then processed through the central nervous system. Ruffini endings also detect warmth. What is the receptor of deep pressure? Pacinian receptors detect pressure and vibration by being compressed which stimulates their internal dendrites. Epiglottis - Vagus nerve (CN X), First, match the taste receptor to the proper cranial nerve name, and then choose the appropriate cranial nerve number. EXs associated w/ what taste sensation? Blood-sucking insects use thermoreception to detect their host, thermoreceptors present in the pit organ of the viper helps them locate their prey. Is it possible to whirl a bucket of water fast enough in a vertical circle so that the water won't fall out? The primary somatosensory cortex (SI) is located in the post central gyrus, with the lower limb being represented on the medial surface of the hemisphere, and the head placed laterally near the Sylvian fissure. Through which cranial nerves does gustatory information travel? - Foliate g. Auditory tube, Outer: Hence, they convey information about the duration of the stimulus. What was the author's purpose? a. basilar membrane. Inner: Pacinian corpuscles detect rapid vibrations (about 200-300 Hz). The vestibule contains two structures, the utricle and __________. ; mechanoreceptor: Any receptor that provides an organism with information about mechanical changes in its environment such as movement, tension, and pressure. Age-related loss of the lenses' ability to change shape. During hearing, the structure(s) first to vibrate is/are the The proprioceptive sense is closely related to the vestibular sense. Action potentials triggered by receptor cells, however, are indirect. Another physical stimulus that has its own type of receptor is temperature, which is sensed through a thermoreceptor that is either sensitive to temperatures above (heat) or below (cold) normal body temperature. David N. Shier, Jackie L. Butler, Ricki Lewis. What substance produced in the external ear impedes microorganism growth? What chamber is between the iris and cornea? What type of receptor monitors changes in position? A single ganglion cell outside of the fovea receives input from ________ rod(s), Each cone synapses with ______ ganglion cell(s), Cornea, anterior chamber, pupil, posterior chamber, lens, vitreous humor, retina, vascular tunic, Name the order of the passage of light through the eyeball: 3 - Pressure waves are generated within the oval window and travel through the scala vestibuli. 5. basilar membrane -Tensor tympani muscle * Na+, EXs associated w/ what taste sensation? Posterior one-third of the tongue and the superior pharynx - Glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX) Nearsightedness disorder in which the cornea and lens are too powerful or the eyeball is too long. Rods: c. sensory neurons. They are rapidly adapting, fluid-filled, encapsulated neurons with small, well-defined borders and are responsive to fine details. The . c. Saccule detect pain, temperature. 1) Sclera 2) Choroid 3) Pigmented layer 4) Neural layer What type of receptor is found in the mucous membranes? e. stapes. SURVEY . Cornea, aqueous humor, sclera, iris, lens, choroid, ciliary body, vitreous humor. f. Utricle, a. Malleus What type of receptor is found in the mucous membranes? a. Glutamate In 2009, an eruption threw solid volcanic rocks that landed 1km1 \mathrm{~km}1km horizontally from the crater. Free nerve endings are sensitive to painful stimuli, to hot and cold, and to light touch. Oval window. However, these are not all of the senses. They contain mechanically-gated ion channels whose gates open or close in response to pressure, touch, stretching, and sound. What structure makes up the posterior portion of the fibrous tunic? Cones: The cranial nerves are connected to the same side of the brain from which the sensory information originates. These categories are based on the nature of stimuli each receptor class transduces. * sucrose Tonic receptors are slow adapting receptors. Active Journals Find a Journal Proceedings Series. For example, the general sense of touch, which is known as somatosensation, can be separated into light pressure, deep pressure, vibration, itch, pain, temperature, or hair movement. -Vitreous humor Tags: Question 21 . Finally, vision involves the activation of photoreceptors. These graded potentialscause neurotransmitter to be released onto a sensory neuron causing a graded post-synaptic potential. It dissociates rhodopsin and changes 11-cis-retinal to all-trans-retinal. Pacinian corpuscles; a large, encapsulated tactile receptor that detects deep pressure and high-frequency vibration. (Note that the special senses are all primarily part of the somatic nervous system in that they are consciously perceived through cerebral processes, though some special senses contribute to autonomic function). Mechanoreceptors in the skin, muscles, or the walls of blood vessels are examples of this type. Tympanic membrane 3. perilymph of scala vestibule The sensory receptors in the skin are: Mechanoreceptors Ruffini's end organ (skin stretch) End-bulbs of Krause (Cold) Meissner's corpuscle (changes in texture, slow vibrations) Pacinian corpuscle (deep pressure, fast vibrations) Merkel's disc (sustained touch and pressure) Free nerve endings thermoreceptor nociceptors chemoreceptors Glutamate inhibits the bipolar cells that synapse with the rods. transparent & avascular Specific types of receptors called _____ detect stimuli in the internal organs. Correctly label the structures associated with the lacrimal apparatus. The vitreous body is also called the vitreous __________. These receptors transmit information along the vagus nerve (10th cranial nerve) to the central nervous system. What is the most numerous type of receptor? Stretching of the skin is transduced by stretch receptors known as bulbous corpuscles. c. inner hair cells of the spiral organ what type of phasic receptors detect light touch, shapes, and textures? Deep pressure and vibration is transduced by lamellated (Pacinian) corpuscles, which are receptors with encapsulated endings found deep in the dermis, or subcutaneous tissue. -Aqueous humor, Indicate whether each item is composed of transparent (clear) material through which light passes, or if the item is an opaque structure not involved in the transmission of light. This redesigned and updated new edition offers a comprehensive introductory survey of basic clinical health care skills for learners entering health care programs or for those that think they may be interested in pursuing a career in health care. of the following EXCEPT a the sensation of pain b. the sensation of itch c the sensation of touch d the sensation of vibration 28. These include receptors for taste and smell as well as visceral receptors that are sensitive to changes in the plasma level of O 2, pH, and osmolality. A detached retina is caused by a separation between which two layers? a. medial geniculate nucleus. Decide if these retinal events occur in the dark or in the light. c - Inferior colliculus a. Lacrimal gland d. oval window. Additionally, lamellated corpuscles are found adjacent to joint capsules and detect vibrations associated with movement around joints. Many of the somatosensory receptors are located in the skin, but receptors are also found in muscles, tendons, joint capsules and ligaments. Free nerve endings are terminal branches of: What type of phasic receptors detect light touch, shapes, textures? b. spiral organ. Order the layers of the eye from superficial to deep. Interoceptors are also called __________ receptors. That makes them finely sensitive to edges and they come into use in tasks such as typing on a keyboard. 4. Use the function with the points (1.5, 3), (9, 10.5), Merkel cells are located in the stratum basale of the epidermis. Follicles are also wrapped in a plexus of nerve endings known as the hair follicle plexus. monitor sensory receptors. dendrites enclosed in a capsule. They are found in both glabrous and hairy skin. The sweetener known as stevia can replace glucose in food. Some thermoreceptors are sensitive to just cold and others to just heat. The junction of the palpebral and ocular conjunctive is called the: Which of the following are a part of the fibrous tunic? c. basilar membrane and tectorial membrane. Meissners corpuscles, also known as tactile corpuscles, are found in the upper dermis, but they project into the epidermis. Meissner corpuscles are the mechanoreceptorslocated in the dermis that detect deep pressure and stretch. f. Superior colliculus - Auditory tube. b) Heat. 2. round window, What is the correct order through which sound travels in the inner ear? -Posterior one-third of the tongue and the superior pharynx d. Axons of glanglion cells from the retina of the left eye, Which disorder of refraction is corrected with a concave lens? 7. basilar membrane, What ion is responsible for depolarization of hair cells of the spiral organ? Earwax is a combination of dead skin cells and __________. Pacinian corpuscles; a large, encapsulated tactile receptor that detects deep pressure and high-frequency vibration. c. broad and deep. What is the function of the auditory ossicles? Sensations can also be protective to the body, by registering environmental cold or warm, and painful needle prick, for example. - Fungiform. a. Choroid a. hair cells covered by an otolithic membrane c. hair cells of spiral organ. Pain is primarily a chemical and sometimes mechanical sense that interprets the presence of chemicals from tissue damage, or intense mechanical stimuli, through a nociceptor. They are part of the tactile-end organs in the skin, which include Merkel . Figure4. Muscle spindles are stretch receptors that detect the amount of stretch, or lengthening of muscles. They are found in the walls of the carotid artery and the aorta where they monitor blood pressure, and in the lungs where they detect the degree of lung expansion. They contain mechanically gated ion channels whose gates open or close in response to pressure, touch, stretching, and sound. There are four primary tactile mechanoreceptors in human skin: Merkels disks, Meissners corpuscles, Ruffini endings, and Pacinian corpuscle; two are located toward the surface of the skin and two are located deeper. Hence, correlation and prediction of biococentration factors (BCFs) based on max and vibration frequencies of various bonds viz (C-H) and (C=C) of biphenyl and its fifty-seven derivatives have been made. Merkels disks are densely distributed in the fingertips and lips. d. outer hair cells of the spiral organ 3) Retina. We become aware of the world by way of sensation. Physical stimuli, such as pressure and vibration, as well as the sensation of sound and body position (balance), are interpreted through a mechanoreceptor. -High degree of neural convergence The Chemical Level of Organization, Chapter 3. 1.2 Structural Organization of the Human Body, 2.1 Elements and Atoms: The Building Blocks of Matter, 2.4 Inorganic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning, 2.5 Organic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning, 3.2 The Cytoplasm and Cellular Organelles, 4.3 Connective Tissue Supports and Protects, 5.3 Functions of the Integumentary System, 5.4 Diseases, Disorders, and Injuries of the Integumentary System, 6.6 Exercise, Nutrition, Hormones, and Bone Tissue, 6.7 Calcium Homeostasis: Interactions of the Skeletal System and Other Organ Systems, 7.6 Embryonic Development of the Axial Skeleton, 8.5 Development of the Appendicular Skeleton, 10.3 Muscle Fiber Excitation, Contraction, and Relaxation, 10.4 Nervous System Control of Muscle Tension, 10.8 Development and Regeneration of Muscle Tissue, 11.1 Describe the roles of agonists, antagonists and synergists, 11.2 Explain the organization of muscle fascicles and their role in generating force, 11.3 Explain the criteria used to name skeletal muscles, 11.4 Axial Muscles of the Head Neck and Back, 11.5 Axial muscles of the abdominal wall and thorax, 11.6 Muscles of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limbs, 11.7 Appendicular Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limbs, 12.1 Structure and Function of the Nervous System, 13.4 Relationship of the PNS to the Spinal Cord of the CNS, 13.6 Testing the Spinal Nerves (Sensory and Motor Exams), 14.2 Blood Flow the meninges and Cerebrospinal Fluid Production and Circulation, 16.1 Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System, 16.4 Drugs that Affect the Autonomic System, 17.3 The Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus, 17.10 Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions, 17.11 Development and Aging of the Endocrine System, 19.2 Cardiac Muscle and Electrical Activity, 20.1 Structure and Function of Blood Vessels, 20.2 Blood Flow, Blood Pressure, and Resistance, 20.4 Homeostatic Regulation of the Vascular System, 20.6 Development of Blood Vessels and Fetal Circulation, 21.1 Anatomy of the Lymphatic and Immune Systems, 21.2 Barrier Defenses and the Innate Immune Response, 21.3 The Adaptive Immune Response: T lymphocytes and Their Functional Types, 21.4 The Adaptive Immune Response: B-lymphocytes and Antibodies, 21.5 The Immune Response against Pathogens, 21.6 Diseases Associated with Depressed or Overactive Immune Responses, 21.7 Transplantation and Cancer Immunology, 22.1 Organs and Structures of the Respiratory System, 22.6 Modifications in Respiratory Functions, 22.7 Embryonic Development of the Respiratory System, 23.2 Digestive System Processes and Regulation, 23.5 Accessory Organs in Digestion: The Liver, Pancreas, and Gallbladder, 23.7 Chemical Digestion and Absorption: A Closer Look, 25.1 Internal and External Anatomy of the Kidney, 25.2 Microscopic Anatomy of the Kidney: Anatomy of the Nephron, 25.3 Physiology of Urine Formation: Overview, 25.4 Physiology of Urine Formation: Glomerular Filtration, 25.5 Physiology of Urine Formation: Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion, 25.6 Physiology of Urine Formation: Medullary Concentration Gradient, 25.7 Physiology of Urine Formation: Regulation of Fluid Volume and Composition, 27.3 Physiology of the Female Sexual System, 27.4 Physiology of the Male Sexual System, 28.4 Maternal Changes During Pregnancy, Labor, and Birth, 28.5 Adjustments of the Infant at Birth and Postnatal Stages.